Resources
research
6) Are public television programs actually good for children?
There is a large volume of research on many public television programs. SESAME STREET, in particular, is probably the single-most researched program in all of television. The key issues related to positive outcomes from watching SESAME STREET and MISTER ROGERS' NEIGHBORHOOD in particular revolve around: 1) cognitive learning, including emergent literacy support and reading readiness; and 2) prosocial outcomes.
Of course it is also important to consider the value of public television's children's programs in the context of what the shows are not; namely, violent, as distorted in their representations of children's reality, full of stereotypes with regard to race, ethnicity and gender, and full of problematic behavioral and conflict resolution modeling. Below are links to references in the academic literature that support these conclusions.
Cognitive Skills and Reading Readiness
Huston, A. and et al., Big World, Small Screen Lincoln, NE: Univ. of Neb. Press, 1992
Chapter 4 of this book has a brief but complete review of "effects" literature, discussing SESAME STREET and MISTER ROGERS' NEIGHBORHOOD, along with other public television programs. Among the outcomes mentioned in literature are learning letters, numbers and other cognitive skills, and some research found these outcomes clearer when comparing viewers with non-viewers while controlling for other variables. More recent longitudinal studies found vocabulary improvements.
Markle Foundation Study, 1996 (Reported in Richard Huff, "Educational TV for tykes pays off, study says," The Des Moines Register , 8/4/96)
Based on research from University of Massachusetts and University of Kansas, the findings revealed positive effects revealed in terms of grade-point averages in high school English, science and math over non-viewing peers for those who watched SESAME STREET and MISTER ROGERS' NEIGHBORHOOD.
Wood, Julie W. and Duke, Nell K., "Inside 'READING RAINBOW': A spectrum of Strategies for Promoting Literacy," Language Arts, Vol. 74, February 1997, 95-106
Two doctoral candidates from the Harvard Graduate School of Education conclude that READING RAINBOW provides many experiences with print, encourages interaction with print outside of the program, reflects prevailing beliefs about effective literacy teaching strategies and provides viewers with exposure to a range of literate discourse consistent with current beliefs about facilitating children's literacy development. for its literacy
Wright, J.C. and Huston, A."Effects of educational television viewing of lower income preschoolers on academic skills, school readiness and school adjustment one to three years later," Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas, 1995
This study supported past research on the effectiveness of SESAME STREET, particularly among low income children. Viewing of SESAME STREET was positively related to time spent reading or being read to and time spent in educational activities for children up to five years of age. Prior viewing of SESAME STREET was a positive predictor of letter-word knowledge, math skills, vocabulary size and school readiness on age-appropriate standardized achievement tests. For older children, SESAME STREET related positively with paragraph comprehension and teachers' judgements of overall school adjustment in first or second grade. The authors conclude that SESAME STREET plays a "positive causal role in their development of readiness for school" and appears to relate to their later success with reading and school adjustment.
Zill, Nicholas and Elizabeth Davis, "Public Television Children's Programs: Are They Helping Young Children Get Ready for School?" Rockville, MD.: Westat, Inc., 1994
This CPB sponsored study found that viewing of BARNEY, MISTER ROGERS' NEIGHBORHOOD, READING RAINBOW and SESAME STREET was associated with higher levels of emergent literacy and fewer negative feedback to parents from teachers about school conduct or performance. The results were more pronounced among preschoolers from low-income families than those from non-poor families.
Prosocial Behavior
Coates, Pusser & Goodman (1976) "The Influence of 'Sesame Street' and 'Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood' on Children's Social Behavior in Preschool, Child Development 47, 138-144
The authors find both programs positively effect social behavior in children.
Friedrich, L. K., Stein A.H. (1973) "Aggressive and Prosocial Television Programs and the Natural Behavior of Preschool children", Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development , 38, Whole Series No. 151
Friedrich and Stein conclude that their research indicates that effects of television depend on the particular programs viewed. The results of their experiment indicate that MISTER ROGERS' NEIGHBORHOOD led to an increase in tolerance of delay (waiting for materials or adult attention). They hypothesize the critical factors were aggressive content producing negative effects and helping prosocial content producing positive effects.
Levin, Diane E. and Nancy Carlsson-Paige, "Developmentally Appropriate Television: Putting children first," Young Children , July 1994, 38-44.
The authors do a good job comparing public television programs (specifically mentioning MISTER ROGERS' NEIGHBORHOOD, SESAME STREET, BARNEY and SQUARE ONE TV) and commercial ones as to their relative effectiveness in addressing the developmental needs of young children.
Shirley, K. W., "The prosocial effects of publicly broadcast children's television", PhD. diss, Univ. of Kansas, 1974
Shirley reports increased willingness to share following viewing of MISTER ROGERS' NEIGHBORHOOD programs that stressed sharing, helping and cooperation.
Tower, Roni Beth, Singer, Singer and Biggs, (1979) "Differential Effects of Television Programming on Preschoolers' Cognition, Imagination and Social Play", American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 49(2)
This research was one of the first to document positive outcomes from MISTER ROGERS' NEIGHBORHOOD, showing positive changes, especially for less imaginative children, in imaginative play, affect, concentration and social interaction.
Collins, et. al., (1997) "The long-term effects of television viewing." Paper presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, Washington, DC in 1997 .
Collins summarizes lots of research which demonstrates long-term positive effects of viewing educational TV, in particular SESAME STREET and MISTER ROGERS' NEIGHBORHOOD.
McFarland, Suzanne L. (1992), "Extending 'The Neighborhood' to Child Care: Research Report", (Toledo, Ohio: Public Broadcasting Foundatin of Northwest Ohio)
McFarland studied the effects for five months on using MISTER ROGERS' NEIGHBORHOOD in child care centers and home-based programs by watching the program off-air or off tape and then doing a related activity from the Mister Rogers' Plan & Play Book. Her report includes many positive changes reported by teachers and parents in both the teachers and the children.
Negative effects of commercial television
Carlsson-Paige & Levin in Day Care and Early Education 19 (2) show the anti-social behavioral effects of MIGHTY MORPHIN POWER RANGERS.
The Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania assessed all of children television which broadcasters had labeled "educational" to comply with FCC regulations. Twenty-two percent of these programs "could not be considered educational by any reasonable benchmark." Another 35 percent were only "moderately educational."
In Wright and Huston (1995) cited above, the authors specifically looked at all television viewing and those who watched adult programming or non-educational cartoons was negatively related to time spent reading and time spent in educational activities. In conclusion, they say that this kind of viewing has a negative effect on school readiness. Interestingly, Wright and Huston also discovered that children watching educational television were less likely to be watching adult programming and non-educational cartoons.
How to help children address inappropriate content on television
Who would invite a stranger into their living room and let them say anything they wanted in front of their children? No responsible parent certainly, and yet that is exactly what happens in many households when the television set is wrong. If a program occasionally says something that make you uncomfortable, think carefully about whether you want your child to watch it. Nearly all the programs in the so called "family hour" (between 7PM and 9PM) are rated TV-PG or higher in the direction of appropriate for mature audiences.
Two ideas:
1. Consider what your child needs: information on subjects that interest her; entertainment that leaves him feeling good about himself and secure about the world, laughter that is not based on put-downs, a sense that the real world children live in is acknowledged on television. Then seek out programs that address those needs. (More on needs of children and how television meets them or fails to meet them.
Nancy Carlson-Paige and Diane Levin (in "Developmentally Appropriate Television: Putting Children First", Young Children, July 1994, 38-44) provide the following list of what children need, what television offers and what it should offer:
| Developmental issue |
What children see on TV |
What children should see |
| To establish a sense of trust and safety. |
The world is dangerous; enemies are everywhere; weapons are needed to feel safe. |
A world where people can be trusted and help each other, where safety and predictability can be achieved, where fears can be overcome. |
| To develop a sense of autonomy with connectedness. |
Autonomy is equated with fighting and weapons. Connectedness is equated with helplessness, weakness and altruism. |
A wide range of models of independence within meaningful relationships and of autonomous people helping each other. |
| To develop a sense of empowerment and efficacy. |
Physical strength and violence equals power and efficacy. Bad guys always return and a range of ways to have an impact are not shown. |
Many examples of people having a positive effect on their world without violence. |
| To establish gender identity. |
Exaggerated, rigid gender differences: boys are strong, violent and save the world; girls are helpless, victimized and irrelevant to world events. |
Complex characters with wide-ranging behaviors, interests, and skills; commonalities between the sexes overlapping in what both can do. |
| To develop an appreciation of diversity among people. |
Racial and ethnic stereotyping. Dehumanized enemies. Diversity is dangerous. Violence against those who are different is justified. |
Diverse peoples with varied talents, skills, and needs, who treat each other with respect, work out problems nonviolently, and enrich each others' lives. |
| To construct the foundations of morality and social responsibility. |
One-dimensional characters who are all good or bad. Violence is the solution to interpersonal problems. Winning is the only acceptable outcome. Bad guys deserve to be hurt. |
Complex characters who act responsibly and morally toward others-showing kindness and respect, working out moral problems, taking other people's points of view. |
| To have opportunities for meaningful play. |
Program content is far removed from children's experience or level of understanding. Toys are linked to programs promoting imitative, not creative play. |
Meaningful content to use in play, which resonates deeply with developmental needs; shows not linked to realistic toys so that children can create their own unique play. |
2. Watch your child as he or she watches television. Ask questions about what they understood from the program, how it makes them feel, how it changes the way they view their life. Use that information to determine whether a program is helpful or harmful to your child.
How to help children address commercials on television
When watching commercials, ask children two simple questions: 1) What are they trying to sell? 2) Do we need any? Encouraging thinking is the best defense against the persuasive power of television. Answers to the first question can provide you with valuable clues as to how your child identifies messages and interprets them (i.e., Does he or she know they are selling a car or a toy because a narrator is saying it or because there is a picture?). The second question helps you reinforce your family's approach to buying things (i.e., Does he or she understand the difference between a want and a need? That toy may look like a lot of fun, and we can see whether you are still interested in that toy when your birthday comes around.)
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